Table 1 Characteristics of women with GDM and without in all subjects and matched subjects

Anthropometric parameters

 N

493

96

/

91

91

/

 Age (years)

30.29 ± 4.41

31.24 ± 4.60

0.040

30.91 ± 4.42

31.04 ± 4.41

0.798

 Parity (n, %)

0.368

0.628

  Nulliparous

142 (35.4)

29 (30.5)

26 (28.6)

29 (31.9)

  Parous

259 (64.6)

66 (69.5)

65 (71.4)

62 (68.1)

 Pre-pregnancy BMI (kg/m²)

21.69 ± 3.08

23.44 ± 3.99

< 0.001

22.87 ± 2.96

22.94 ± 3.00

0.658

First trimester

 Gestation weeks

10.93 ± 3.11

11.29 ± 3.68

0.63

11.63 ± 4.21

11.23 ± 3.68

0.211

 SBP (mmHg)

116.37 ± 10.86

117.61 ± 10.05

0.220

118.19 ± 9.73

117.25 ± 10.04

0.401

 DBP (mmHg)

71.02 ± 8.53

71.44 ± 9.17

0.011

72.09 ± 8.59

71.16 ± 9.26

0.467

 Weight (kg)

57.44 ± 8.58

60.68 ± 9.60

< 0.001

60.51 ± 8.05

59.94 ± 8.74

0.785

 Height (cm)

1.60 ± 0.05

1.59 ± 0.06

0.030

1.60 ± 0.04

1.59 ± 0.05

0.318

 WBC (× 10⁹/L)

8.62 ± 2.05

8.98 ± 1.78

0.030

8.61 ± 2.22

8.95 ± 1.82

0.044

 Neutrophils (× 10⁹/L)

6.27 ± 1.40

6.81 ± 1.46

0.005

6.21 ± 1.42

6.80 ± 1.49

0.008

 ALT (U/L)

10.00 (8.00–15.00)

10.00 (8.00–14.75)

0.950

11.00 (8.00–15.75)

10.00 (8.00–14.00)

0.452

 BUN (mmol/L)

2.60 (2.10–3.10)

2.44 ± 0.59

0.010

2.61 ± 0.74

2.43 ± 0.61

0.182

 SCR (umol/L)

51.57 ± 9.29

50.02 ± 7.79

0.190

51.61 ± 8.72

50.19 ± 7.87

0.267

 TC (mmol/L)

4.39 (3.95–4.98)

4.49 (4.01–4.90)

0.750

4.56 ± 0.75

4.46 ± 0.69

0.385

 TG (mmol/L)

1.34 (1.07–1.75)

1.62 (1.25–2.00)

< 0.001

1.55 (1.19–2.06)

1.59 (1.24–2.02)

0.792

 HDL (mmol/L)

1.82 (1.59–2.04)

1.79 (1.51–1.99)

0.040

1.78 ± 0.35

1.74 ± 0.36

0.683

 LDL (mmol/L)

2.48 ± 0.69

2.47 ± 0.59

0.610

2.56 ± 0.65

2.46 ± 0.59

0.455

 FPG (mmol/L)

4.40 (4.14–4.62)

4.47 (4.22–4.81)

0.020

4.35 (4.16–4.56)

4.47 (4.22–4.79)

0.021

 eGFR (CDK-EPI) (mL/min/1.73m²)

124.24 ± 10.63

124.39 ± 8.27

0.780

123.77 ± 9.97

124.42 ± 8.41

0.595

 eGFR (MDRD) (mL/min/1.73m²)

134.50 ± 29.90

136.82 ± 24.77

0.390

133.81 ± 27.90

136.54 ± 25.02

0.306

 NE (ng/mL)^a

2.58 ± 0.26

2.70 ± 0.24

< 0.001

2.57 ± 0.24

2.69 ± 0.23

< 0.001

 PR3 (ng/mL)^a

1.94 ± 0.23

2.00 ± 0.21

0.014

1.93 ± 0.21

2.00 ± 0.21

0.040

Second trimester

 Gestation weeks

25.90 ± 1.40

25.81 ± 1.74

0.75

25.79 ± 1.52

25.80 ± 1.77

0.467

 NE (ng/mL)

476.06 (349.26–839.20)

602.29 (429.80–760.82)

0.391

437.19 (349.05–974.50)

542.65 (359.41–704.15)

0.706

 PR3 (ng/mL)

91.50 (67.83–117.19)

95.23 (68.06–138.40)

0.280

99.14 (69.94–174.84)

92.18 (63.47–135.90)

0.606

 FPG (mmol/L)

4.35 ± 0.37

4.84 ± 0.58

< 0.001

4.39 (4.15–4.51)

4.66 (4.38–5.26)

< 0.001

 1 h PG (mmol/L)

7.01 ± 1.59

9.86 ± 1.59

< 0.001

7.18 ± 1.47

9.90 ± 1.60

< 0.001

 2 h PG (mmol/L)

6.01 ± 1.12

8.19 ± 1.59

< 0.001

6.07 ± 1.00

8.18 ± 1.61

< 0.001

 OGTT area

12.18 ± 2.04

16.38 ± 2.18

< 0.001

12.40 ± 1.80

16.41 ± 2.20

< 0.001

 WBC (× 10⁹/L)

9.52 ± 2.27

9.66 ± 1.95

0.250

9.49 ± 2.21

9.60 ± 1.93

0.441

 Neutrophils (× 10⁹/L)

7.03 ± 1.98

7.12 ± 1.62

0.270

6.98 ± 1.96

7.08 ± 1.61

0.365

Third trimester

 Delivery time (weeks)

39.0 ± 1.46

38.5 ± 1.54

0.003

38.8 ± 1.58

38.5 ± 1.56

0.078

 HBA1C (%)

5.41 ± 0.43

5.62 ± 0.46

0.180

5.63 ± 0.26

5.62 ± 0.48

0.830

 FPG (mmol/L)

4.02 ± 0.65

4.43 ± 0.69

< 0.001

3.83 ± 0.43

4.40 ± 0.70

0.002

 Weight gain (kg)

12.73 ± 4.52

9.99 ± 4.98

< 0.001

11.98 ± 4.52

10.00 (7.00–13.50)

0.013

Pregnancy outcomes

 Newborn weight (kg)

3.27 ± 0.45

3.32 ± 0.53

0.090

3.24 ± 3.91

3.33 ± 4.77

0.042

 Macrosomia (n, %)

0.403

0.660

  No

302 (95.6)

69 (93.2)

68 (97.1)

68 (95.8)

  Yes

14 (4.4)

5 (6.8)

2 (2.9)

3 (4.2)

 Fetus gender (n, %)

0.282

0.935

  Male

143 (45.3)

39 (52.7)

36 (51.4)

37 (52.1)

  Female

173 (54.7)

35 (47.3)

34 (48.6)

34 (47.9)

 Comprehensive adverse fetal outcomes (n, %)

0.001

0.058

  No

284 (89.9)

57 (77.0)

64 (91.4)

57 (80.3)

  Yes

32 (10.1)

17 (23.0)

6 (8.6)

14 (19.7)

 Cesarean section (n, %)

0.082

0.592

  No

212 (67.1)

42 (56.8)

42 (60)

40 (56.3)

  Yes

104 (32.9)

32 (43.2)

28 (40)

31 (43.7)

 Preeclampsia (n, %)

0.532

0.316

  No

491 (99.6)

95 (99.0)

91 (100)

90 (98.9)

  Yes

2 (0.4)

1 (1.0)

0 (0)

1 (1.1)

 Gestational hypertension (n, %)

0.498

0.470

  No

386 (96.3)

91 (94.8)

88 (96.7)

86 (94.5)

  Yes

15 (3.7)

5 (5.2)

3 (3.3)

5 (5.5)