Table 3 Examples of pharmacological compounds or therapeutical procedures found to improve erectile function by modulating the autophagy process
Drug/ compound/ procedure | In vitro/In vivo | Cell line | Animal model | Target pathway(s) affecting autophagy | Effect on autophagy | Finding(s) | Ref(s) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Liraglutide | In vitro/In vivo | CSMC | DMED rats | - | ↑ | Protected against ED through regulating smooth muscle dysfunction, oxidative stress, and autophagy, irrespective of its glucose-lowering action. | [206] |
Probucol | In vivo | - | DMED rats | - | ↑ | Improved MSCs therapeutic effectiveness by extending their survival period, increasing the antioxidant ability of MSCs, boosting autophagy, and hindering MSCs apoptosis by the Nrf2 pathway. | [207] |
Simvastatin | In vivo | - | DMED rats | Activating AMPK-SKP2-CARM1 pathway | ↑ | Enhanced protective autophagy, improved erectile function, and alleviated Corpus cavernosum fibrosis. | [209] |
Rapamycin | In vivo | - | DMED rats | Lowering the expression of AKT/mTOR and AMPK/mTOR pathways | ↑ | Enhanced erectile function, most likely via boosting autophagy, decreasing apoptosis and fibrotic activities, and improving endothelial function. | [212] |
Tankyrase 1 overexpression | In vitro | CSMCs from aging ED rats | - | Enhancing mTOR signaling pathway | ↑ | Increased proliferation, and enhanced autophagy in CSMCs | [210] |
Human tissue Kallikrein 1 | In vivo | - | Aging ED rats | Inhibiting the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway | ↑ | Partially restored erectile function in aging transgenic rats by upregulating the protecting autophagy. | [213] |
MSCT + DL-ESWT | In vivo | - | DMED rats | PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway | ↑ | Improved ED, enhanced ICP/MAP ratio, decreased apoptosis, and stimulated autophagy in corpus cavernosum | [214] |
USCT | In vitro/In vivo | CCECs treated with AGEs | DMED rats | - | ↑ | Improved ED, upregulated autophagic activity, and ameliorated cavernosal endothelial dysfunction, | [215] |
Icariside II | In vivo | - | DMED rats | Enhancing PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway | ↓ | Improved erectile function through decreased excess CCSMCs, mitochondrial autophagy, oxidative stress, and RAGE. | [208] |
mTOR signaling pathway | Improved diabetic ED, upregulated SMC proliferation, and the NO–cGMP pathway- Downregulated AGEs, and autophagy. | [216] |