Fig. 2

Graphical summary of the main effects of alcohol consumption on the reproductive function in women. Alcohol consumption is associated to higher estrogens and lower progesterone levels, effects mediated by both ovarian and extra-ovarian actions, including: decreased hepatic oxidation of estradiol to estrone; increase of aromatase activity; decreased hepatic conversion of pregnenolone to progesterone; reduced cholesterol uptake; decreased expression of luteinizing hormone (LH) human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) receptors expression in granulosa cells. Alcohol consumption is associated to reduced oviductal smooth muscle cells contractility, although apparently not resulting in increased ectopic pregnancy rate, and to reduced cytotrophoblast proliferation, and increased cytotrophoblast apoptosis. Alcohol consumption is associated to irregular menstrual cycles and ovulatory dysfunction