Table 1 Physiological effects of testosterone on adaptation to physical exercise and sports performance in males. Edited from P Sgro and L Di Luigi [39]

Somatic Growth

Control of growth

Epiphyseal cartilage closure

Secondary sexual characteristics

Somatic masculinization

Endocrine-metabolic system

Anti-cortisol effects (metabolism, steroid receptor competition…)

Increased anaerobic glycolytic capacity

Increased enzymes activity in mitochondria

Increased phosphocreatine content

Increased protein anabolism

Increased sarco-tubular enzymes activity

Inhibited stress related CRH-ACTH-Cortisol response

Pro-insulin and insulin-like effects

Reduced protein catabolism

Stimulated erythropoiesis

Synergic effects with growth hormone

Functional capacity

Increased aerobic and anaerobic capacity

Cardiovascular efficiency

Increased muscle strength and explosive strength

Increased muscle adaptation to training

Body composition

Increased bone mineral density

Increased muscle mass

Male pattern muscle distribution

Reduced fat mass

Central nervous system

Increased aggressiveness

Increased dominance

Increased inclination to command

Increased motivation to compete

Increased neuro-muscular conduction

Increased visual-spatial capacities

Reduced empathy

Reduced negative reaction to external rapid stimuli and/or alarms

Reduced perception of negative emotions

Reduced sense of fatigue

Psycho-motor and sports capacity

Increased aggressiveness in competition

Increased motivation to compete

Increased resistance to fatigue

Increased visual-spatial orientation during competition