Table 2 Chemicals and their respective effects on both male and female reproductive function

BPA

Inhibits binding to androgen receptor, decreased semen quality, erectile dysfunction, chromosomal abnormalities in oocyte, recurrent miscarriage,

[132, 140, 144]

Disinfection by-products

Organochemicals and Pesticides e.g. DDT, DDE, Methoxyclor

Change in hormone levels, irregular menstruation, decreased fertility, decreased semen quality, chromosomal abnormalities in sperm, altered histology of testes, decreased libido, fetal loss, miscarriage

[132, 138, 142–144]

Dioxins

Changes in hormone levels, altered puberty, altered start of menarche, endometriosis, decreased fertility, fetal loss

[132, 143]

Phthalates

Decreased semen quality, oligozoospermia, earlier menarche, altered menstrual cycle, infertility

[132, 144]

Solvents

Change in hormone levels, decreased semen quality, irregular menstruation, decreased fertility, miscarriage, fetal loss

[132]